OPEN ACCESS
Case Report Peer-Reviewed
Open
Peer Review
Peer Review
Selected Metal Materials in Automotive Electrical Engineering—A Brief Overview of the State of the Art
Management Faculty, AGH University of Science and Technology, 30-067 Kraków, Poland
Academic Editor:
Received: 27 June 2023 Accepted: 21 August 2023 Published: 25 August 2023
Abstract
The work presents selected material issues related to the development of modern motorization. The advantages and threats of obtaining key materials for the automotive industry were analyzed. Aspiration to radically reduce CO2 emissions sets the main trend in the automotive industry focused on the production of electric cars. The production of electric cars is closely related to the development of innovative battery production technologies using such critical elements as lithium, magnesium, nickel, cobalt, and graphite. Their acquisition and production of components is concentrated in several countries around the world, including China, which is their main supplier. The lack of diversification of supplies and the huge expected increase in demand for these materials, resulting from the exponential growth in the production of electric cars, pose threats to supply chains. One of the solutions is the development of effective technologies for battery recycling. There is a risk of losing many jobs as a result of changes in the automotive market and the withdrawal of classic cars from production. Taking into account the scope, pace, and changes resulting from changes in the automotive industry, in particular in the field of materials, one should expect their global impact on the economy.
Figures in this Article
Figure 1
Figure 2
Figure 3
Figure 4
Figure 5
Figure 6
Keywords
Copyright © 2023
Richert. This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY 4.0), which permits unrestricted use and distribution provided that the original work is properly cited.
Cite this Article
Richert, M. (2023). Selected Metal Materials in Automotive Electrical Engineering—A Brief Overview of the State of the Art. Highlights of Vehicles, 1(1), 54–67. https://doi.org/10.54175/hveh1010004
References
1.
Salonitis, K., Pandremenos J., Paralikas J., & Chryssolouris, G. (2009). Multifunctional Materials Used in Automotive Engineering: A Critical Review. In S. Pantelakis & C. Rodopoulos (Eds.), Engineering Against Fracture. Springer, Dordrecht. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4020-9402-6_5
2.
Lipman, T. E., & Maijer, P. (2021). Advanced materials supply considerations for electric vehicle applications, MRS Bulletin, 46, 1164–1175. https://doi.org/10.1557/s43577-022-00263-z
3.
Ragonnaud, G. (9 March 2023). Securing Europe’s supply of critical raw materials. The material nature of the EU’s strategic goals. European Parliament. https://www.europarl.europa.eu/RegData/etudes/BRIE/2023/739394/EPRS_BRI(2023)739394_EN.pdf (accessed 24 June 2023).
4.
Parekh, D., Poddar, N., Rajpurkar, A., Chahal, M., Kumar, N., Joshi, G. P., et al. (2022). A Review on Autonomous Vehicles: Progress, Methods and Challenges. Electronics, 11(14), 2162. https://doi.org/10.3390/electronics11142162
5.
Maraš, V., Bugarinovic, M., Anoyrkati, E., & Avarello, A. (2018). Megatrends, A Way to Identify the Future Transport Challenges 2020. In E. G. Nathanail & I. D. Karakikes (Eds.), Data Analytics: Paving the Way to Sustainable Urban Mobility. Springer Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-02305-8
6.
Singh, S. (2023). Mega Trends and Their Impact on Future of Mobility. In New Mega Trends Implications for Our Future Lives. Palgrave Macmillan.
7.
Vaz, C. R., Regina, T. R. S., & Lezana, Á. G. R. (2017). Sustainability and Innovation in the Automotive Sector: A Structured Content Analysis. Sustainability, 9(6), 880. https://doi.org/10.3390/su9060880
8.
Kesselring, S., Canzler, W., & Kaufmann, V. (2012). Sustainable Automobilities in the Mobile Risk Society. Sustainability, 13(10), 5648. https://doi.org/10.3390/su13105648
9.
Singh, P. P., Wen, F., Palu, I., Sachan, S., & Deb, S. (2023). Electric Vehicles Charging Infrastructure Demand and Deployment: Challenges and Solutions. Energies, 16(1), 7. https://doi.org/10.3390/en16010007
10.
Lusty, P., Josso, P., Price, F., Singh, N., Gunn, A., Shaw, R., et al. (2022). British Geological Survey. Study on future UK demand and supply of lithium, nickel, cobalt, manganese and graphite for electric vehicle batteries. UK Critical Minerals Intelligence Centre. https://www.ukcmic.org/downloads/reports/ukcmic-battery-minerals-report.pdf (accessed 21 June 2023).
11.
Zhang, C, Zhao, X., Sacchi, R., & You, F. (2023). Trade-off between critical metal requirement and transportation decarbonization in automotive electrification. Nature Communications, 14, 1616. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-023-37373-4
12.
Luong, J. H. T., Tran, C., & Ton-That, D. (2022). Paradox over Electric Vehicles, Mining of Lithium for Car Batteries. Energies, 15(21), 7997. https://doi.org/10.3390/en15217997
13.
Gifford, S. (2022). Lithium, Cobalt and Nickel: The Gold Rush of the 21st Century. Faraday Insights. https://www.faraday.ac.uk/wp-content/uploads/2022/09/Faraday_Insights_6_Updated_Sept2022_FINAL.pdf (accessed 26 June 2023).
14.
Attinasi, M. G., Balatti, M., Mancini, M., & Metelli, L. (2022). Supply chain disruptions and the effects on the global economy. In Economic Bulletin Issue 8, 2021. European Central Bank. https://www.ecb.europa.eu/pub/economic-bulletin/focus/2022/html/ecb.ebbox202108_01~e8ceebe51f.en.html (accessed 21 June 2023).
15.
KPMG. (2023). The supply chain trends shaking up 2023. https://kpmg.com/xx/en/home/insights/2022/12/the-supply-chain-trends-shaking-up-2023.html (accessed 21 June 2023).
16.
Richert, M., & Dudek, M. (2023). Risk Mapping: Ranking and Analysis of Selected, Key Risk in Supply Chains. Journal of Risk and Financial Management, 16(2), 71. https://doi.org/10.3390/jrfm16020071
17.
Brown, A. (17 march 2022). Supply chain challenges in 2023 & how to overcome them. Extensiv. https://www.extensiv.com/blog/supply-chain-management/challenges (accessed 21 June 2023).
18.
EU Science Hub. (16 March 2023). Solutions for a resilient EU raw materials supply chain. European Commission. https://joint-research-centre.ec.europa.eu/jrc-news-and-updates/solutions-resilient-eu-raw-materials-supply-chain-2023-03-16_en (accessed 21 June 2023).
19.
Kim, S. B., Huh H., Lee, G. H., Yoo, J. S., & Lee, M. Y. (2008). Design of the cross section shape of an aluminium crash box for crashworthiness enhancement of a car. International Journal of Modern Physics B, 22(31n32), 5578–5583. https://doi.org/10.1142/S021797920805084X
20.
Ashley, S. (2023). Building an aluminum car (1994). Mechanical Engineering, 116(5), 65–68.
21.
Tisza, M., & Czinege, I. (2018). Comparative study of the application of steels and aluminium in lightweight production of automotive parts. International Journal of Lightweight Materials and Manufacture, 1(4), 229–238. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijlmm.2018.09.001
22.
Figuerola-Ferretti, I. (2005). Prices and production cost in aluminium smelting in the short and the long run. Applied Economics, 37(8), 917–928. https://doi.org/10.1080/00036840500061244
23.
Satpathyand, B. N., & Mohan, S. (2016). Metals in World Economy Case of Aluminium Industry in India Status & Constraints. NITI Aayog. https://www.niti.gov.in/sites/default/files/2019-07/MWEC1.pdf (accessed 21 June 2023).
24.
The Piping Mart. (13 December 2022). Comparing the cost of aluminium vs steel. https://blog.thepipingmart.com/metals/comparing-the-cost-of-aluminium-vs-steel (accessed 21 June 2023).
25.
Tisza, M., & Lukács, Z. (2018). High strength aluminum alloys in car manufacturing. IOP Conference Series: Materials Science and Engineering, 418, 012033. https://doi.org/10.1088/1757-899X/418/1/012033
26.
Alumobility. (2022). All vehicles should be made from aluminum. https://alumobility.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/07/Alumobility_White-Paper_All-Vehicles-Should-Be-Made-From-Aluminum_July2022.pdf (accessed 23 June 2023).
27.
Huang, K., Wang, J., & Zhang, J. (2023). Automotive Supply Chain Disruption Risk Management: A Visualization Analysis Based on Bibliometric. Processes, 11(3), 710. https://doi.org/10.3390/pr11030710
28.
Cauzzi, S., & Timelli, G. (2018). Preparation and Melting of Scrap in Aluminum Recycling: A Review. Metals, 8(4), 249. https://doi.org/10.3390/met8040249
29.
European Aluminium. (2023). Recycling of aluminium composite panels. https://european-aluminium.eu/wp-content/uploads/2023/04/Factsheet-aluminium-composite-recycling.pdf (accessed 24 June 2023).
30.
Ellingsen, A.-W. L., Majeau-Bettez, G., Singh, B., Srivastava, A. K., Valøen, L. O., & Strømman, A. H. (2014). Life cycle assessment of a lithium-ion battery vehicle pack. Journal of Industrial Ecology, 18(1), 113–124. https://doi.org/10.1111/jiec.12072
31.
Taub, A., De Moor, E., Luo, A., Matlock, D. K., Speer, J. G., & Vaidya, U. (2019). Materials for automotive lightweighting. Annual Review of Materials Research, 49, 327–359. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-matsci-070218-010134
32.
Transport and Environment. (2023). How to guarantee green batteries in Europe. Making sure the EUʼs battery carbon footprint rules are fit for purpose. https://www.transportenvironment.org/wp-content/uploads/2023/04/2023_04_Battery_carbon_footprint_position paper.pdf (accessed 24 June 2023).
33.
Billy, R. G., & Müller, D. B. (2023). Aluminium use in passenger cars poses systemic challenges for recycling and GHG emissions. Resources, Conservation and Recycling, 190, 106827. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resconrec.2022.106827
34.
Tucker, R. (2013). Trends in automotive lightweighting, Metal Finishing, 111(2), 23–25. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0026-0576(13)70158-2
35.
Ducker Carlisle. (2023). Aluminum Content in Passenger Vehicles (Europe). Assessment 2022 and Outlook 2026, 2030. European Aluminium. https://european-aluminium.eu/wp-content/uploads/2023/05/23-05-02Aluminum-Content-in-Cars_Public-Summary.pdf (accessed 24 June 2023).
36.
Demirkesen, A., & Uçar, M. (4–5 December 2020). Investigation of the effects of using aluminum alloys in electric vehicles production. The 5th International Marmara Sciences Congress, Gölcük, Turkey.
37.
European Aluminium Association. (2013). Applications – Car body – Crash management systems. https://european-aluminium.eu/wp-content/uploads/2022/11/4_aam_crash-management-systems1.pdf (accessed 21 June 2023).
38.
Marzbanrad, J. & Keshavarzi, A. (2014). A numerical and experimental study on the crash behavior of the extruded aluminum crash box with elastic support. Latin American Journal of Solids and Structures, 11(8), 1329–1348, https://doi.org/10.1590/S1679-78252014000800003
39.
Liu, Y., & Ding, L. (2016). A study of using different crash box types in automobile frontal. International Journal of Simulation: Systems, Science & Technology, 17(38), 21. https://doi.org/10.5013/IJSSST.a.17.38.21
40.
Constantin, B. A., Iozsa, D., & Fratila, G. (2016). Studies about the Behavior of the Crash Boxes of a Car Body. IOP Conference Series: Materials Science and Engineering, 161, 012010. https://doi.org/10.1088/1757-899X/161/1/012010
41.
Boreanaz, M. (2018) Development of crash box for automotive application [Master’s Thesis, Politecnico di Torino]. Webthesis. https://webthesis.biblio.polito.it/7119
42.
Karantza, K. D., & Manolakos, D. E. (2022). Crashworthiness Analysis of Square Aluminum Tubes Subjected to Oblique Impact: Experimental and Numerical Study on the Initial Contact Effect. Metals, 12(11), 1862. https://doi.org/10.3390/met12111862
43.
Asri, M. N. A. M., Abdullah, N. A. Z., & Sani, M. S. M. (2022). The effect of model updating of crash box structures with trigger mechanisms towards the crashworthiness output of the structures. AIP Conference Proceedings, 2545(1), 020014. https://doi.org/10.1063/5.0103191
44.
Kamboj, M., Chetry, A., Kurien, C., & Srivastava, A. K. (2023). Computational study on the potential of aluminium alloy as a candidate material in automotive leaf spring. Australian Journal of Mechanical Engineering, 21(2), 406–417. https://doi.org/10.1080/14484846.2020.1842617
45.
Han, S., Guang, X., Li, Z., & Li, Y. (2022). Joining processes of CFRP‐Al sheets in automobile lightweighting technologies: A review. Polymer Composites, 43(12), 8622–8633. https://doi.org/10.1002/pc.27088
46.
Wojdat, T., Kustroń, P., Jaśkiewicz, K., Zwierzchowski, M., & Margielewska, A. (2019). Numerical modelling of welding of car body sheets made of selected aluminium alloys. Archives of Metallurgy & Materials, 64(4), 1403–1409. https://doi.org/10.24425/amm.2019.130107
47.
Szczucka-Lasota, B., Tomasz, W., & Jurek, A. (2020). Aluminum alloy welding in automotive industry. Transport Problems, 15(3), 67–78. https://doi.org/10.21307/tp-2020-034
48.
Abramowicz, W., & Jones, N. (1984). Dynamic axial crushing of square tubes. Intertional Journal of Impact Engineering, 2(2), 179–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/0734-743X(84)90005-8
49.
Rogala, M, Gajewski, J., & Ferdynus, M. (2020). The effect of geometrical non-linearity on the crashworthiness of thin-walled conical energy-absorbers, Materials, 13(21), 4857. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma13214857
50.
Abdullah, N. A. Z., Sani M. S. M., Salwani, M. S., & Husain, N. A. (2020). A review on crashworthiness studies of crash box structure. Thin-Walled Structures, 153, 106795. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tws.2020.106795
51.
Harte, A.-M., Fleck N. A., & Ashby, M. F. (2000). Energy absorption of foam-filled circular tubes with braided composite walls. European Journal of Mechanics – A/Solids, 19(1), 31–51. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0997-7538(00)00158-3
52.
Fleck, N. A., Deshpande, V. S., & Ashby, M. F. (2010). Micro-architectured materials: past, present and future. Proceedings of The Royal Society A, 466(2121). https://doi.org/10.1098/rspa.2010.0215
53.
Pled, F., Yan, W., & Wen, C. (10–12 December 2007). Crushing Modes of Aluminium Tubes under Axial Compression. The 5th Australasian Congress on Applied Mechanics, Brisbane, Australia.
54.
Ma, J., & You, Z. (2014). Energy Absorption of Thin-Walled Square Tubes With a Prefolded Origami Pattern—Part I: Geometry and Numerical Simulation. Journal of Applied Mechanics, 81(1), 011003. https://doi.org/10.1115/1.4024405
55.
Sadighi, A., Eyvazian A., Asgari M., & Hamouda, A. M. (2019). A novel axially half corrugated thin-walled tube for energy absorption under axial loading. Thin-Walled Structures, 145, 106418. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tws.2019.106418
56.
Wang, D., Liu, B., & Liang, H. (2023). Investigation into design strategy of aluminum alloy-CFRP hybrid tube under multi-angle compression loading. International Journal of Mechanical Sciences, 248, 108207. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijmecsci.2023.108207
57.
Mondal, D. P., Venkat, A. N. C., & Saxena, S. (2019). Closed Cell Aluminium Composite Foam for Crashworthiness Applications. Applied Innovative Research, 1, 48–51.
58.
IEA. (2023). Global EV Outlook 2023. https://www.iea.org/reports/global-ev-outlook-2023 (accessed 22 June 2023).
59.
Patwaa, N., Sivarajah, U., Seetharamanc, A., Sarkard, S., Maitid, K., & Hingoran, K. (2021). Towards a circular economy: An emerging economies context. Journal of Business Research, 122, 725–735. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2020.05.015
60.
Bell, D. V. J., & Grinstein, M. (2002). The Role of Government in Advancing Corporate Sustainability. Sustainable Enterprise Academy, York University. http://www.g8.utoronto.ca/scholar/2002/bell11062002.pdf (accessed 22 June 2023).
61.
Turczuk, A., Michaluk P., & Olszewska A. M. (2022). Greenwashing jako nieuczciwa praktyka marketingowa na przykładzie branży samochodowej (in Polish). Akademia Zarządzania, 6(4), 92–115. https://doi.org/10.24427/az-2022-0058
62.
Berga, H., & Zackrisson, M. (2019). Perspectives on environmental and cost assessment of lithium metal negative electrodes in electric vehicle traction batteries. Journal of Power Sources, 415, 83–90. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpowsour.2019.01.047
63.
Acebedo, B., Morant-Miñana, M. C., Gonzalo, E., Ruiz de Larramendi, I., Villaverde, A., Rikarte, J., et al. (2023). Current Status and Future Perspective on Lithium Metal Anode Production Methods. Advanced Energy Materials, 13(13), 2203744. https://doi.org/10.1002/aenm.202203744
64.
Tracy, B. S. (2022). Critical Minerals in Electric Vehicle Batteries. Congressional Research Service. https://crsreports.congress.gov/product/pdf/R/R47227 (accessed 22 June 2023).
65.
IEA. (2022). Global EV Outlook 2022. https://www.iea.org/reports/global-ev-outlook-2022 (accessed 22 June 2023).
66.
Mazur, M. (2023). Europe runs on Polish lithium-ion batteries. The potential of the battery sector in Poland and the CEE Region. PSPA. https://pspa.com.pl/wp-content/uploads/2023/05/PSPA_Europe_Runs_on_Polish_Li-Ion_Batteries_Report_EN.pdf (accessed 22 June 2023).
67.
Kunene, N. (2023). Top 8 lithium producers in the world by country. IG. https://www.ig.com/en/trading-strategies/top-8-lithium-producers-in-the-world-by-country-221114 (accessed 22 June 2023).
68.
Kovacheva-Ninova, V. K., Savov, G. M., Vassileva, V., Vutova, K., Petrov, E., & Petrov, D. (2018). Trends in the development of cobalt production. “Е+Е”, 53(3–4), 84–94. https://epluse.ceec.bg/wp-content/uploads/2018/09/20180304-07.pdf (accessed 22 June 2023).
69.
Howard, M., & Gifford, S. (2023). Building a Responsible Cobalt Supply Chain. Faraday Insights. https://www.faraday.ac.uk/wp-content/uploads/2023/01/Faraday_Insights_7_Jan23_Final.pdf (accessed 22 June 2023).
70.
Harraz, H. Z. (November 2017). Perlite deposit [PowerPoint slides]. ResearchGate. https://doi.org/10.13140/RG.2.2.30929.43367
71.
Gajigo, O., Mutambatsere, E., & Adjei, E. (2011). Manganese industry analysis: implications for project finance. African Development Bank.
72.
European Commission, Directorate-General for Internal Market, Industry, Entrepreneurship and SMEs, Grohol, M., & Veeh, C. (2023). Study on the Critical Raw Materials for the EU 2023 - Final Report. Publications Office of the European Union. https://doi.org/10.2873/725585
73.
Bell, T. (28 July 2019). Nickel Metal Profile. ThoughtCo. https://www.thoughtco.com/metal-profile-nickel-2340147 (accessed 22 June 2023).
74.
Pedersen, T. (23 September 2016). Facts About Nickel. Live Science. https://www.livescience.com/29327-nickel.html (accessed 22 June 2023).
75.
Zhou, Q., & Damm, S. (2020). Supply and Demand of Natural Graphite. Deutsche Rohstoffagentur.
76.
Dolega, P., Buchert, M., & Betz, J. (2020). Environmental and socio-economic challenges in battery supply chains: graphite and lithium. Oeko-Institut. https://www.oeko.de/fileadmin/oekodoc/Graphite-Lithium-Env-Soc-Eco-Challenges.pdf (accessed 22 June 2023).
77.
Ritoe, A., Patrahau, I., & Rademaker, M. (2022). Graphite - Supply chain challenges & recommendations for a critical mineral. The Hague Centre for Strategic Studies. https://hcss.nl/wp-content/uploads/2022/03/Graphite-HCSS-2022.pdf (accessed 22 June 2023).
78.
Hund, K., Laporta, D., Fabregas, T. P., Laing, T., & Drexhage, J. (2021). Minerals for Climate Action: The Mineral Intensity of the Clean Energy Transition. International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/The World Bank.
79.
U.S. Department of Energy. (2023). Critical Materials Assessment. https://www.energy.gov/sites/default/files/2023-05/2023-critical-materials-assessment.pdf (accessed 22 June 2023).
80.
Department of Industry, Innovation and Science (Australia), & Australian Trade and Investment Commission. (2019). Australia’s Critical Minerals Strategy. Government of Australia. https://apo.org.au/node/227646 (accessed 23 June 2023).
81.
European Commission, Directorate-General for Internal Market, Industry, Entrepreneurship and SMEs, Bobba, S., Carrara, S., Huisman, J., Mathieux, F., et al. (2020). Critical raw materials for strategic technologies and sectors in the EU - A foresight study. European Commission. https://data.europa.eu/doi/10.2873/58081 (accessed 26 June 2023).
82.
Patrahau, I., Rademaker, M., van Manen, H., van Geuns, L., Singhvi, A., & Kleijn, R. (2020). Securing Critical Materials for Critical Sectors: Policy Options for the Netherlands and the European Union. The Hague Centre for Strategic Studies.
83.
Olson, D. W. (2022). Mineral Commodity Summaries: Graphite. U.S. Geological Survey. https://pubs.usgs.gov/periodicals/mcs2022/mcs2022-graphite.pdf (accessed 23 June 2023).
84.
Drahokoupil, J., Guga, S., Martišková, M., Pícl, M., & Pogátsa, Z. (2019). The future of employment in the car sector. Four country perspectives from Central and Eastern Europe. Friedrich Ebert Stiftung. https://slowakei.fes.de/fileadmin/user_upload/The_future_of_employment_in_the_car_sector_FINAL__2_.pdf (accessed 23 June 2023).
85.
International Labour Organization. (2021). The future of work in the automotive industry. Technical meeting on the future of work in the automotive industry (Geneva, 15–19 February 2021). https://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---ed_dialogue/---sector/documents/meetingdocument/wcms_821994.pdf (accessed 23 June 2023).
86.
Amighini, A. A., Maurer, A., Garnizova, E., Hagemejer, J., Stoll, P. T., Dietrich, M., et al. (2023). Global value chains: Potential synergies between external trade policy and internal economic initiatives to address the strategic dependencies of the EU. European Parliament. https://www.europarl.europa.eu/RegData/etudes/STUD/2023/702582/EXPO_STU(2023)702582_EN.pdf (accessed 23 June 2023).
87.
Hadwick, A. (2023). The state of European supply chains 2023. How inflation, uncertainty, and changing global economic and energy outlooks will shape European supply chains. JLL. https://www.jll.co.uk/content/dam/jll-com/documents/pdf/research/emea/jll-the-state-of-european-supply-chains.pdf (accessed 23 June 2023).
88.
Aguboshim, F. C., Obiokafor, I. N., & Emenike, A. O. (2023). Sustainable data governance in the era of global data security challenges in Nigeria: A narrative review. World Journal of Advanced Research and Reviews, 17(2), 378–385. https://doi.org/10.30574/wjarr.2023.17.2.0154
89.
Mallapragada, D. S., Dvorkin, Y., Modestino, M. A., Esposito, D. V., Smith W. A., Hodge B.-M., et al. (2023). Decarbonization of the Chemical Industry through Electrification: Barriers and Opportunities. Joule, 7(1), 23–41. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.joule.2022.12.008
90.
Aghsaee, R., Hecht, C., Schwinger, F., Figgener, J., Jarke, M., & Sauer D. U. (2023). Data-Driven, Short-Term Prediction of Charging Station Occupation. Electricity, 4(2), 134–153. https://doi.org/10.3390/electricity4020009
91.
Strange, C., Ibraheem, R., & dos Reis, G. (2023). Online Lifetime Prediction for Lithium-Ion Batteries with Cycle-by-Cycle Updates, Variance Reduction, and Model Ensembling. Energies, 16(7), 3273. https://doi.org/10.3390/en16073273
92.
Hull, C. E. (2022). Competitive Sustainability: The Intersection of Sustainability and Business Success. Sustainability, 14(24), 16420. https://doi.org/10.3390/su142416420
93.
Coffman, J., Iyer, R., & Robinson, R. (2023). 2023 Deloitte automotive supplier study. Transforming business models amidst rising operational challenges, Automotive supplier study transforming business models amidst rising operational challenges. Deloitte. https://www2.deloitte.com/content/dam/Deloitte/it/Documents/consumer-business/deloitte-automotive-supplier-study-2023.pdf (accessed 23 June 2023).
94.
Müller, J. M. (2019). Comparing technology acceptance for autonomous vehicles, battery electric vehicles, and car sharing—A study across Europe, China, and North America. Sustainability, 11(16), 4333. https://doi.org/10.3390/su11164333
95.
Chawla, U., Mohnot, R., Mishra V., Singh, H. V., & Singh, A. K. (2023). Factors influencing customer preference and adoption of electric vehicles in India: a journey towards more sustainable transportation. Sustainability, 15(8), 7020. https://doi.org/10.3390/su15087020
96.
Osatis, C., & Asavanirandorn, C. (2022). Exploring Human Resource Development in Small and Medium Enterprises in Response to Electric Vehicle Industry Development. World Electric Vehicle Journal, 13(6), 98. https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj13060098
97.
Felser, K., & Wynn, M. (2023). Managing the Knowledge Deficit in the German Automotive Industry. Knowledge, 3(2), 180–195. https://doi.org/10.3390/knowledge3020013
98.
Stoma, M., Dudziak, A., Caban, J., & Droździel P. (2021). The Future of Autonomous Vehicles in the Opinion of Automotive Market Users. Energies, 14(16), 4777. https://doi.org/10.3390/en14164777
99.
European Environment Agency. (2022). Decarbonising road transport – The role of vehicles, fuels and transport demand. Publications Office of the European Union. https://data.europa.eu/doi/10.2800/68902 (accessed 3 August 2023).
100.
Sisson, P. (25 April 2023). Shift to electric cars gives design centers a new look, too. The New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/2023/04/25/business/electric-vehicles-design-centers.html (accessed 23 June 2023).
101.
Barman, P., Dutta, L., & Azzopardi, B. (2023). Electric Vehicle Battery Supply Chain and Critical Materials: A Brief Survey of State of the Art. Energies, 16(8), 3369. https://doi.org/10.3390/en16083369
102.
Klementzki, V., Glistau, E., Trojahn, S., Coello Machado, N. I. (2023). Resilience in Supply and Demand Networks. Processes, 11(2), 462. https://doi.org/10.3390/pr11020462
103.
Alkhatib, S. F., & Momani, R. A. (2023). Supply Chain Resilience and Operational Performance: The Role of Digital Technologies in Jordanian Manufacturing Firms. Administrative Sciences, 13(2), 40. https://doi.org/10.3390/admsci13020040
104.
Kopanaki, E. (2022). Conceptualizing Supply Chain Resilience: The Role of Complex IT Infrastructures. Systems, 10(2), 35. https://doi.org/10.3390/systems10020035
105.
García Alcaraz, J. L., Díaz Reza, J. R., Arredondo Soto, K. C., Hernández Escobedo, G., Happonen, A., Puig I Vidal, R., et al. (2022). Effect of Green Supply Chain Management Practices on Environmental Performance: Case of Mexican Manufacturing Companies. Mathematics, 10(11), 1877. https://doi.org/10.3390/math10111877
106.
He, X., Su, D., Cai, W., Pehlken, A., Zhang, G., Wang, A., et al. (2021). Influence of Material Selection and Product Design on Automotive Vehicle Recyclability. Sustainability, 13(6), 3407. https://doi.org/10.3390/su13063407
107.
Kochhar, A., & Johnston, T. G. (2020). A Process, Apparatus, and System for Recovering, Materials from Batteries (Patent No. WO2018218358A1). WIPO. https://patents.google.com/patent/WO2018218358A1/en
108.
Pagliaro, M., & Meneguzzo, F. (2019). Lithium battery reusing and recycling: A circular economy insight. Heliyon, 5(6), e01866. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2019.e01866
109.
Internal Market, Industry, Entrepreneurship and SMEs. (2023). Critical raw materials. European Commission. https://single-market-economy.ec.europa.eu/sectors/raw-materials/areas-specific-interest/critical-raw-materials_en (accessed 24 June 2023).
110.
U.S. Department of Energy. (May 2023). Critical Materials Assessment. https://www.energy.gov/sites/default/files/2023-05/2023-critical-materials-assessment.pdf (accessed 24 June 2023).
111.
Mat, M. (23 April 2023). Lithium (Li) Ore. Geologyscience. https://geologyscience.com/ore-minerals/lithium-li-ore (accessed 2 August 2023).
112.
MacRae, M. E. (2022). Nickel. U.S. Geological Survey. https://pubs.usgs.gov/periodicals/mcs2022/mcs2022-nickel.pdf (accessed 2 August 2023).
113.
Statista. (2021). Distribution of mine production of nickel worldwide in 2021, by country. https://www.statista.com/statistics/603621/global-distribution-of-nickel-mine-production-by-select-country (accessed 2 August 2023).
114.
Kelly, L. (17 August 2023). Top 10 cobalt producers by country (updated 2023). Investing News Network. https://investingnews.com/where-is-cobalt-mined (accessed 2 August 2023).
115.
Barrera, P., & Kelly, L. (26 June 2023). 7 Biggest Lithium-Mining Companies in 2023. Investing News Network. https://investingnews.com/daily/resource-investing/battery-metals-investing/lithium-investing/top-lithium-producers (accessed 2 August 2023).
116.
Statista. (2022). Distribution of global primary nickel consumption in 2022, by region. https://www.statista.com/statistics/571958/distribution-of-nickel-consumption- worldwide-by-region (accessed 2 August 2023).
117.
Research in China. (March 2023). Global and China Cobalt Industry Report, 2021–2026. http://www.researchinchina.com/Htmls/Report/2022/71753.html (accessed 2 August 2023).
118.
Carra, S., Bobba S., Blagoeva D., Alves Dias, P., Cavalli, A., Georgitzikis K., et al. (2023). Supply chain analysis and material demand forecast in strategic technologies and sectors in the EU – A foresight study. Publications Office of the European Union. https://doi.org/10.2760/334074
119.
ERA-MIN. (2013). Strategic implementation plan for the European innovation partnership on Raw Materials. Part II: Priority Areas, Action Areas and Actions. https://www.era-min.eu/sites/default/files/publications/eip-sip-part-2.pdf (accessed 24 June 202).
120.
Cotton, R. (March 2023). Building a Global Supply of Lithium for North America and Europe. Balkan. https://www.investi.com.au/api/announcements/bmm/90f3597e-443.pdf (accessed 24 June 2023).
121.
Innovation Norway, Business Finland, Business Sweden, & the Swedish Energy Agency. (2023). The Nordic Battery Value Chain - Market drivers, the Nordic value proposition, and decisive market necessities. https://www.eba250.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/02/NordicBatteryReport.pdf (accessed 24 June 2023).
122.
Pražanová, A., Kŏcí, J., Míka, M. H., Pilnaj, D., Plachý, Z., & Knap, V. (2023). Pre-Recycling Material Analysis of NMC Lithium-Ion Battery Cells from Electric Vehicles. Crystals, 13(2), 214. https://doi.org/10.3390/cryst13020214
123.
Link, S., Neef, C., & Wicke, T. (2023). Trends in Automotive Battery Cell, Design: A Statistical Analysis of Empirical Data. Batteries, 9(5), 261. https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries9050261
124.
Adamas Intelligence. (10 March 2023). NEW REPORT: State of Charge: EVs, Batteries and Battery Materials (2022 H2). https://www.adamasintel.com/state-of-charge-2022-h2 (accessed 24 June 2023).
125.
Bünting, A., Dietrich, F., Sprung, C., Bierau-Delpond, F., Vorholt, F., Gieschen, J.-H., et al. (2023). Resilient Supply Chains in the Battery Industry. VDI/VDE Innovation + Technik GmbH. https://doi.org/10.13140/RG.2.2.16737.28002
126.
Advanced Propulsion Centre UK. (2023). Battery and fuel cell future cost comparison. https://www.apcuk.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/2023/02/Battery-and-Fuel-Cell-Cost-Comparison-report.pdf (accessed 24 June 2023).
127.
Tankou, A., Bieker, G., & Hall, D. (2023). Scaling up reuse and recycling of electric vehicle batteries: assessing challenges and policy approaches [White paper]. International Council on Clean Transportation. https://theicct.org/wp-content/uploads/2023/02/recycling-electric-vehicle-batteries-feb-23.pdf (accessed 24 June 2023).
128.
Slowik, P., Lutsey, N., & Hsu, C.-W. (2020). How technology, recycling and policy can mitigate supply risks to the long-term transition to zero-emission vehicles. International Council on Clean Transportation. https://theicct.org/publication/how-technology-recycling-and-policy-can-mitigate-supply-risks-to-the-long-term-transition-to-zero-emission-vehicles (accessed 24 June 2023).
129.
U.S. Geological Survey. (2022). Mineral commodity summaries 2022. https://doi.org/10.3133/mcs2022
130.
European Parliament. (2023). Updating CO2 emission standards for heavy-duty vehicles. https://www.europarl.europa.eu/RegData/etudes/BRIE/2023/747427/EPRS_BRI(2023)747427_EN.pdf (accessed 24 June 2023).
131.
Helbig, N., Sandau, J., & Heinrich, J. (2019). The Future of the Automotive Value Chain: 2025 and beyond. Deloitte. https://www2.deloitte.com/cn/en/pages/consumer-business/articles/automotive-value-chain-2025-and-beyond.html (accessed 24 June 2023).
132.
Celasun, O., Sher, G., Topalova, P., & Zhou, J. (2023). Cars and Green Transition: Challenges and Opportunities for European Workers. In IMF Working Paper (No. 2023/116). International Monetary Fund. https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WP/Issues/2023/06/02/Cars-and-the-Green-Transition-Challenges-and-Opportunities-for-European-Workers-534091 (accessed 24 June 2023).
133.
BASF. (2023). Three automotive sustainability challenges facing the industry. https://automotive-transportation.basf.com/global/en/automotive/stories/Three_automotive_sustainability_challenges_facing_the_industry.html (accessed 24 June 2023).
134.
Yang, Z., Huang, H., & Lin, F. (2022). Sustainable Electric Vehicle Batteries for a Sustainable World: Perspectives on Battery Cathodes, Environment, Supply Chain, Manufacturing, Life Cycle, and Policy. Advanced Energy Materials, 12(26), 2200383. https://doi.org/10.1002/aenm.202200383
135.
Alanazi, F. (2023). Electric Vehicles: Benefits, Challenges, and Potential Solutions for Widespread Adaptation. Applied Sciences, 13(10), 6016. https://doi.org/10.3390/app13106016
Metrics
Loading...
Journal Menu
Journal Contact
Highlights of Vehicles
Editorial Office
Highlights of Science
Avenida Madrid, 189-195, 3-3
08014 Barcelona, Spain
08014 Barcelona, Spain
Zejian Zhang
Managing Editor
